Bikeshares and e-scooter sharing systems have become part of the big city landscape, prompting many researchers to take a closer look at the carbon footprint of e-scooters.
This article weighs the pros and cons of e-scooters and contrasts them with their biggest competitors, e-bikes. It also examines current data on carbon emissions generated by e-scooters relative to other modes of electric transport.
E-scooter share systems have rapidly grown in popularity since their 2017 U.S. introduction. The Bureau of Transportation Statistics interactive map demonstrates the growth of micromobility resources, and particularly electric micromobility in recent years.3
But e-scooters aren’t just for sharing, and about 13% of people surveyed own a personal e-scooter.39
These numbers will likely continue to grow, so now is the time to really dig into the carbon footprint of e-scooters and ensure that they are an environmentally responsible choice for the future.
Carbon Footprint of E-Scooters
The carbon footprint of e-scooters has been reported by multiple sources. According to the International Transport Forum, the carbon footprint of a private e-scooter is figured at around 40g of CO2e per passenger km while a shared e-scooter’s footprint is closer to 110g of CO2e per passenger km.18
Meanwhile, Cenex estimates the lifetime carbon footprint of e-scooters at 35 to 67g of CO2e per km.28
A third source suggests that shared e-scooters with a 2 year lifespan generate approximately 141g CO2e per passenger mile (~87g CO2e per passenger km).19
There is not currently a consensus on e-scooter emissions, and technological advances make new models of e-scooters more eco-friendly, making the need for new, updated data essential. For the time being, it can be estimated that most e-scooters, private and shared, will have a carbon footprint that averages out to somewhere between 40 and 100g of CO2e per passenger km.
What Is an E-Scooter?
The e-scooter (electric scooter) is a battery-powered, motorized form of transportation that is operated by a rider who stands on a platform extending between two small wheels while controlling steering and acceleration from an upright handlebar.
E-scooters contain rechargeable batteries that power electric motors that turn the gears and, subsequently, the wheels.38
Superficially, the e-scooter may resemble classic kick scooters, but its motorized design makes it much more mechanically complex. It also makes it more functional, leading the micromobility domain with shared scooters available in most major cities, from companies such as Lime and Bird.38
E-scooters are sometimes referred to as green electric scooters due to the fact that they do not produce tailpipe emissions like vehicles that rely on internal combustion. Ideally, these motorized, electric scooters can be used to replace inner-city travel by passenger cars and taxis.10
E-Scooter vs Electric Scooter
The terms e-scooter and electric scooter are often used interchangeably and not always differentiated. While e-scooter almost always refers to the standing, motorized form of a kick scooter, “electric scooter” may refer to the standing or seated variety.
For the sake of this article, both terms will be used to refer to the standing variety of electric scooter, unless otherwise specified.10
The next section briefly explains climate change and underscores the importance of carbon footprint calculation across all domains.
Understanding Carbon Footprint Calculation
To answer the question of “What is a carbon footprint?”, the basics of climate change should first be related.
Climate change, or global warming, is occurring because high levels of greenhouse gases (GHGs), such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) are being released into the atmosphere as a result of human activity.
These GHGs, also referred to as carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e), get trapped in the atmosphere, creating a gaseous blanket around the earth, which produces a phenomenon known as a “greenhouse effect”. As the earth gets warmer, weather patterns and geographical landscapes change, impacting ecosystems and creating a cascade of detrimental effects.
Every person, business, organization, animal, product, and activity generate CO2e, thus contributing to global warming. The carbon footprint of a given source is a numerical representation of the amount of emissions generated by that source.
Carbon footprint calculation allows individuals to understand their unique contributions to climate change so that they can make informed decisions to reduce their environmental impact.
According to the EPA’s webpage “Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” transportation accounts for approximately 28% of annual GHG emissions in the United States. That makes it the single largest contributor to the nation’s overall carbon footprint, followed closely by electric power (25%) and industry (23%).35
These GHGs are primarily generated by the combustion of petroleum-based fuels such as diesel and gasoline, which are also non-renewable natural resources. This obvious, adverse environmental impact of transportation has impelled the development of electric vehicles (EVs).
(Image: helloimnik46)
The environmental conversation around EVs centers on the question of whether electric vehicles truly lower CO2e emissions or if the emissions are simply shifted to other economic sectors, specifically industry (battery manufacture) and electric power (battery charging). Information at the time of writing indicates that electric vehicles are better for the environment, despite their manufacturing emissions, but there is still a lot of room for improvement.
The following section looks specifically at the e-scooter’s footprint and where its carbon emissions are produced.
Examining the Carbon Footprint of E-Scooters
A life cycle analysis (LCA) of the carbon footprint of e-scooters aggregates emissions data from the pre-production phases of the e-scooter’s life cycle all the way to end-of-life disposal stage. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) describes the three scopes of emissions that should be investigated and reported on for carbon footprint analysis.
Scope 1 emissions are directly produced by the company through fossil fuel combustion for company vehicles and facilities.
Scope 2 emissions are indirectly generated by the company’s use of purchased electricity.
Scope 3 emissions are produced upstream and downstream of manufacture by fossil fuel combustion stemming directly or indirectly from suppliers, distributors, and consumers.
All of these factors should be considered in a life cycle analysis of a product, and with 18 categories of scope 3 emissions alone, this is a serious undertaking (see “Scope 1 and Scope 2 Inventory Guidance” and “Scope 3 Inventory Guidance”).32,33
To understand the e-scooter’s life cycle, all of its component parts must be accounted for. Most e-scooters will include the following elements:8
- Battery: The majority of e-scooters rely on lithium-ion batteries.
- Brakes: Often combined electric and mechanical braking systems.
- Display (optional): Many e-scooters have electronic displays which show speed and battery life.
- Frame (Stem and Deck): The physical body of the e-scooter, made up of an upright stem and horizontal platform deck. Typically folding for portability.
- Handlebars: Steering and controls attached to the upright stem.
- Lights: LED headlight and brake light.
- Microcontroller/Processor: Electronic circuit that communicates between the battery, brakes and accelerator with the motor.
- Motor: Electric motor, typically built into one or both wheels.
- Seat (optional): Some e-scooter models may also come with seating attachments.
- Suspension: Hydraulic, rubber, or spring suspension for stability. Spring suspension is most common for e-scooters.
- Tires: Pneumatic (air-filled) or solid.
As would be reasonably expected, the carbon emissions from the manufacture of all these parts adds up, but perhaps more concerning is the carbon footprint of mining, collecting, manufacturing, and processing the raw materials used. Think of the lithium mined for batteries, the silicon used in microchips, and the aluminum used in the metal frame.
Additionally, the carbon emissions from transport of manufactured products are also significant, particularly when shipped internationally. Emissions from consumer use of e-scooters depend upon the area where the consumer lives. In regions where electricity is primarily sourced from renewables such as solar and wind, these emissions are negligible, but in regions where the electric mix is primarily fossil-fuel based, emissions from charging are more apparent.
(Image: Vlad B47)
Another factor to note is that for shared e-scooters, their portion of the overall infrastructure must also be counted in their footprint.
For reference, the EPA’s Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator says this is comparable to driving anywhere from one-tenth of a mile to one-quarter of a mile in a gas-powered passenger vehicle.17
Continue reading to learn more about how the e-scooter measures up against other forms of electric transportation from an environmental perspective and find out more about whether e-scooters or e-bikes are a better option.
Other Examples of Electric Mobility and Their Footprints
According to the DOT, the domain of electric mobility includes all electric-powered vehicles, from light to heavy-duty, also inclusive of micromobility devices, such as the e-scooter. The three primary types of electric vehicles are:11
- Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs): Electric motor powered by a rechargeable battery that must be charged by an external power source.
- Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs): Includes electric motor and small internal combustion (IC) engine. The rechargeable battery can be charged by an external source or by the IC engine.
- Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs): Electric motor powered by electrochemical conversion of hydrogen into electricity. Reliant on stored compressed hydrogen gas.11
E-scooters fall in the category of BEVs alongside e-bikes and hoverboards, and other electricity-powered devices designed to cover short travel distances at low speeds.7 Fully electric passenger cars, trucks, and buses are also included in this category.
From the previous section, the lifetime carbon footprint of the e-scooter averages out to approximately 40 – 100g of CO2e per km.1,18 How do all of these other BEVs stack up against one another and against hybrid and fuel-cell electric vehicles?
1.) Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs)
The following subsections look at fully electric vehicles, or battery electric vehicles, in both the micromobility and standard-size mobility domains.
Personal Electric Vehicles (PEVs)
Aside from e-scooters, the primary forms of electric micromobility are the e-bike and the hoverboard. Both are equipped with rechargeable batteries and electric motors. E-bikes are popular in public bikeshare systems, while as of yet, hoverboards remain primarily personal devices.
E-bike
In France, where the electric grid is pretty clean, it is estimated that an electric bike, or e-bike, generates approximately 13g of CO2e per kilometer traveled, assuming a lifespan of 20,000 km for the bike. When a 15,000 km lifespan is assumed, this number rises to 17g of CO2e per km.
(Image: Erik Mclean41)
In Germany, where the electric grid is still carbon intensive, a 20,000 km bike generates approximately 17g of CO2e per km, and a 15,000 km e-bike generates around 21g of CO2e/km.
With that said, it is apparent that the amount of electricity required for charging, and the subsequent emissions are rather small, and the vast majority of the e-bike’s carbon footprint comes from the manufacturing phase of its life cycle.4
Standard Electric Mobility
The vehicles that fall in the standard electric mobility domain are typically passenger vehicles which are capable of carrying more than one person.
The BEV200 generated approximately 166g of CO2e per mile (~103g of CO2e/km), which was the lowest of all vehicles evaluated. The BEV300 generated 182g of CO2e per mile (~113g of CO2e/km), and the BEV400 produced 209g of CO2e per mile (~130g of CO2e/km).26
Metro/Subway
Public transportation is incredibly important in large city infrastructure, as every passenger equates to a personal car kept off the road. The use of electric public transit is especially beneficial to the environment, helping to avoid hundreds of thousands of metric tons of CO2e.
(Image: Nic Y-C45)
The metro is estimated to generate between 3 and 4 kg of CO2e per mile traveled (~2kg of CO2e/km or ~1,800 – 2,400g of CO2/km).29 Note that these emissions are reported for vehicle miles, not passenger vehicle miles which would divide these emissions by the number of passengers carried by the vehicle.
2.) Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs)
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) rely on a combination of battery power and internal combustion power, giving them an edge over their gas-powered cousins and possibly a slight edge over non-plug-in hybrid models, but leaving them in the wake of fully electric vehicles.
It is estimated that the lifetime emissions from a PHEV are approximately 28 metric tons (Mt) of CO2e. Lifetime emissions break down to around 117 g of CO2e per km traveled.20
3.) Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles can have a wide range of lifetime carbon footprint. A large chunk of the carbon footprint comes from manufacture of the vehicles themselves, which are a composite of many moving parts that require the mining of metals, productions of plastics, and burning of fossil fuels.
Perhaps the biggest determinant of the energy efficiency and environmental friendliness of FCEVs is how the hydrogen fuel is made. If the electricity used to produce the fuel comes from a renewable source such as wind or solar power, the vehicle becomes much more eco-friendly.
If, however, the hydrogen fuel is produced by fossil-fuel derived electricity or fossil fuels directly, the carbon footprint of the vehicle is much larger.
The Hyundai Tucson Fuel Cell SUV was the first commercially available vehicle of its kind, and it has been compared with its gasoline counterpart in a “cradle-to-grave” analysis. The Tucson FCEV generated approximately 286 g CO2e per mile (177 g CO2e/km) when the hydrogen fuel was produced entirely by natural gas, the least eco-friendly method.
This is a 34% reduction in CO2e emissions from the gasoline-powered Tucson. Note that when 46% renewable hydrogen fuel is used instead, lifetime emissions drop to 173 g CO2e per mile (107 g CO2e/km), a 60% reduction from the gasoline version.20
What Are the Pros and Cons of E-Scooters?
E-scooters have been hailed as revolutionary in eco-friendly urban travel, and they currently dominate the trending micromobility movement. Global e-scooter usage is expected to top 110 million riders by the year 2025.13
The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) outlines the many benefits of e-scooters and micromobility in general, but along with their many benefits come a fair amount of drawbacks, as well.2 The following table outlines some pros and cons of e-scooters.
| BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS OF ELECTRIC SCOOTERS | |
| PROS | CONS |
| Environment: Replacing motorized travel in-city | Environment: Replacing non-motorized travel |
| Convenience: Lightweight, portable, and able to rent | Health: Replacing manual exercise |
| Fun: Provides an enjoyable experience | Safety: Can be hazardous for pedestrians, motor vehicle operators, and scooter riders |
| Traffic: Can decrease urban congestion | Regulation: Laws and rules of operation are unclear and may vary city to city |
| Cost: More affordable than other transportation options | Price: Personal e-scooter price can be prohibitive |
| Pollution: Reduce urban emissions | Accessibility: Standing scooters may not be ideal for handicapped and elderly individuals |
| Parking: No need for parking infrastructure and no pay-to-park | Security: Size and portability makes it easier to steal |
* This table is not intended to be a comprehensive list of all pros and cons.
To summarize, the greatest benefits of e-scooters are the fact that they are convenient and fairly easy to use and can reduce traffic congestion in cities. When they are used to replace more polluting forms of transportation, such as travel by gas and diesel-powered cars, they can greatly reduce the amount of greenhouse gas emissions released into the urban atmosphere.
E-scooters are more affordable for a wider range of people, and they don’t require parking as they can simply be folded up and carried indoors.36
The flip side of that coin is that while emissions are not being released during e-scooter operation, they are produced elsewhere during electricity production and battery manufacture. And although e-scooters are often used in place of cars to travel short distances (~36% of trips), they are just as often used in place of walking or biking trips (~46% of trips), meaning less exercise for individuals.6
There has also been some concern over safety of operation, lack of clarity for rules governing operation, and lack of security for these small vehicles.12,40
Electric Scooter Vs. Electric Bike: Which Is Better?
The electric scooter vs electric bike debate keeps cropping up, so now might be the time to address the issue. Although the choice between e-scooter and e-bike really comes down to personal preference, there are several factors to be considered when making the decision.
The following are some of the major points in choosing between e-bike and e-scooter.
- Comfort
Most e-scooters are designed to be operated in the standing position while bicycle riders are in the sitting position.
In general, sitting is more comfortable for the average person. While e-scooters with seats are available, the seats and wheels are typically less shock absorbent than the e-bike. The e-bike wins in comfort!23
- Convenience
Convenience is often determined by ease of use and size. The e-scooter edges out the e-bike in this domain because the e-scooter’s size allows it to be stored in small spaces.
This means that at the end of a journey, the e-scooter doesn’t require parking but can be folded up for easy storage beneath a desk or in a closet. While many e-bikes also fold, their size and weight make it more difficult to store them indoors. E-scooter wins in convenience!23
- Cost
There are wide price ranges on both e-scooters and e-bikes, from affordable basic models to costly performance models. However, the cheapest, quality e-scooter will almost always be more affordable than the cheapest, quality e-bike, making the e-scooter the winner in the cost domain.
- Fitness
One of the criticisms of the e-scooter is that it replaces active transportation (walking, pedal biking) with inactive transportation, reducing the amount of exercise riders get. With e-bikes, manual pedaling is still required and can be used as much as desired, allowing riders to enhance their physical fitness.
The e-bike wins the fitness category!23
- Functionality
The e-bike leads in this category because, unlike the e-scooter, it can be used to carry cargo. Equipped with a large basket or other add-ons, the e-bike can be used for shopping, carrying small to medium loads, and even ferrying passengers.
The e-bike wins in functionality and versatility!23
- Lifespan
An e-bike that is well-maintained can last up to 10 years, whereas a well-maintained e-scooter will typically last up to 5 years.21,37 The e-bike is the clear winner in this category!
- Maintenance
The e-bike will likely require more maintenance over its longer lifespan than the e-scooter due to it having more moving parts. Fortunately, there are usually plenty of bike mechanics equipped to service e-bikes.
While this can be costly, it is less so than having to replace an e-scooter entirely when something breaks. In short, the e-bike requires more maintenance but lasts longer because there are more people able to work on it. E-bike wins in maintenance.
- Portability
While both e-scooters and e-bikes are portable, the e-scooter’s lighter weight and foldability make it ideal. The e-scooter’s ease of portability makes it ideal for individuals who want to use the device for various stages of their trip and carry it in between.
Riders can use their e-scooter from home to the metro, fold it up to board the metro, then unfold it and ride the last leg of their journey. So the e-scooter wins in portability!9
- Range
E-bikes typically have larger batteries which provide extended battery duration. Because of this, e-bikes are able to travel longer distances on a single charge.
Additionally, the ability to pedal the e-bike in the case that the battery loses its charge gives it a much wider range. E-bike wins in range!9
- Safety
Safety is a bit of a toss-up, because while more serious injuries are likely to occur from e-bike accidents at higher speeds, e-scooter riders are less likely to wear helmets and consequently more likely to sustain head injuries. It’s a draw for safety.9
- Security
Security can be a big issue for both e-scooters and e-bikes as their resale values are high, putting them both at risk for theft. The best defense against theft is locking e-bikes when parked and bringing e-scooters inside.
The need to keep an e-scooter indoors or even in eyesight to ensure its security put it at a slight disadvantage, but on the whole, it’s a draw for security.
- Speed
Yes, there are e-scooters that can travel 80 to 90 mph, but the average e-scooter does not. The average e-scooter tops out around 20 to 25 mph while e-bikes can exceed speeds of 30 mph. When traveling a few blocks through heavy traffic, speed may not be a concern.
People who are traveling across town, however, may prefer a little extra power. The e-bike wins in speed!14
Another neat and fun fact about the e-bike is that riders don’t need to purchase an entirely new bike to enjoy the benefits; cyclists can invest in an electric bike kit with battery and convert their existing bicycle into an e-bike!30
This is great news for individuals with custom bicycles or bikes with other special accommodations. It also saves on the CO2e emissions from building a new aluminum bike frame: the most energy intensive and polluting aspect of e-bike construction.4
Readers who are still in doubt about which electric mobility device to invest in can ask themselves one simple question: Is the personal electric vehicle to be used for short distances in congested cities?
If the answer is yes, the e-scooter may be the best overall choice. If longer distances over bumpy roads is the goal, an e-bike is likely a better fit.
(Image: Hiboy48)
E-scooters are revolutionizing urban transit and increasing access for individuals who may otherwise be confined to walking or cycling.
The convenience and portability of an e-scooter is unmatched and these personal electric vehicles have been hailed as the eco-friendly option for city-goers.
Understanding the e-scooter’s environmental impact compared to other common forms of transportation, including e-bikes, helps you make transportation decisions based on the best option for the environment.
Frequently Asked Questions About the Carbon Footprint of E-Scooters
How Much Is an Electric Scooter?
For anyone wondering “How much is an electric scooter?,” quality standard e-scooters typically range from about $300 to $700, though high-performance models are significantly more expensive.25,34 The cost to charge a personal e-scooter varies according to local electric prices and charging frequency, but the numbers are fairly low with single charges typically well under $1.22 The cost of electric scooter rental varies from city to city, but generally there is a small start-up cost of around $1 to use the scooter, and then a by-minute charge thereafter.27
What Is the Fastest Electric Scooter?
While most e-scooters are designed for safe and efficient intra-city travel, some hobbyists may seek out an e-scooter for the thrill it can provide. These individuals are likely asking the question “What is the fastest electric scooter?” Currently, the fastest e-scooter model on the market is the Slack Core 920R, clocking an astonishing 90.1 mph speed.16,24
Are Electric Scooters and Battery-Powered Scooters the Same Thing?
Yes, a battery powered scooter is the same thing as an electric scooter. The battery is one of the main components of an electric scooter, as it provides the energy to power the motor, which in turn, rotates the gears which rotate the wheels. The battery is rechargeable and must be connected to a charging station so that the battery can be recharged by an electrical source.15
What Is a Carbon Emissions Calculator?
A carbon emissions calculator is a tool that allows individuals, businesses, and other entities to estimate the amount of greenhouse gases they generate on a – usually annual – basis. This helps people to understand the extent to which their activities impact climate change, without having to learn how to calculate carbon footprint manually. Carbon footprint calculators consider the amount of fuel consumed, the amount of electricity used, and the amount of waste generated to provide approximations.5
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34Somerville, P. (2023, April 5). The Best Cheap Electric Scooters (We Tested Them All). Rider Guide. Retrieved September 25, 2024, from <https://riderguide.com/best-rated/best-cheap-electric-scooters/>
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37Thomas, R. (2024, June 24). E-Bike Lifespans: How Long Do Electric Bikes Last? Biktrix. Retrieved September 27, 2024, from <https://biktrix.com/blogs/the-biktrix-blog/how-long-do-electric-e-bike-last>
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39Ward, A., McElroy, S., Kilburn, R., Webber, P., & Brine, J. (n.d.). E-Scooters: Are They a Good or Bad Thing? Survey Data. JMW Solicitors. Retrieved September 27, 2024, from <https://www.jmw.co.uk/services-for-you/personal-injury/blog/e-scooters-are-they-good-or-bad-thing-survey-data>
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41Parked Powered Bikes on Sidewalk Photo by Erik Mclean / Pexels Free License. Cropped, Resized and Changed Format. From Pexels <https://www.pexels.com/photo/parked-powered-bikes-on-sidewalk-8811582/>
42Happy Girl Riding on Hoverboard Photo by Ron Lach / Pexels Free License. Cropped, Resized and Changed Format. From Pexels <https://www.pexels.com/photo/happy-girl-riding-on-hoverboard-9508860/>
43Black and Silver Car on a Parking Lot Photo by Michael Fousert / Unsplash License. Cropped, Resized and Changed Format. From Unsplash <https://unsplash.com/photos/black-and-silver-car-on-parking-lot-O63S96_qn8c>
44Electric SUV Photo by Eren Goldman / Unsplash License. Cropped, Resized and Changed Format. From Unsplash <https://unsplash.com/photos/an-electric-car-plugged-in-to-a-charging-station-mfqj3ZSs_h0>
45Train Station Photo by Nic Y-C / Unsplash License. Cropped, Resized and Changed Format. From Unsplash <https://unsplash.com/photos/people-standing-on-train-station-19OuV1n0WlI>
46Orange Electric Scooters Photo by helloimnik / Unsplash License. Cropped, Resized and Changed Format. From Unsplash <https://unsplash.com/photos/a-group-of-orange-scooters-parked-next-to-each-other-LN8IwrFW_Ow>
47Peope Riding E-Scooters Photo by Vlad B / Unsplash License. Cropped, Resized and Changed Format. From Unsplash <https://unsplash.com/photos/man-in-white-dress-shirt-and-blue-denim-jeans-holding-black-and-red-shopping-cart-on-near-on-near-on-emjNOlbRZio>
48Scooter in the sunset. Photo by Hiboy / Unsplash License. Cropped, Resized and Changed Format. From Unsplash <https://unsplash.com/photos/a-scooter-is-parked-on-a-brick-wall-dr2oM9XWsRA>